A number of anti-government armed groups operate in Syria. The most significant groups, in particular those active in the north of the country, are listed in this section.

The Syrian National Army (SNA) is a Turkey-backed armed umbrella group based in northern Aleppo governorate. SNA are in control of the ‘Operation Euphrates Shield’ (area between Azaz, Al-Bab, and Jarablus) and ‘Operation Olive Branch’ (Afrin district) areas in northern Aleppo governorate, and of the ‘Operation Peace Spring’ area between Tall Abyad (Raqqa governorate) and Ras al Ain (Hasaka governorate). 

By the end of 2017, Turkey had incorporated various armed groups that fought alongside them in the ‘Euphrates Shield’ operation into the SNA, under the formal supervision of the so-called Syrian Interim Government’s Ministry of Defence. The SNA reportedly has between 30 to 40 distinct armed groups in its composition. It includes armed opposition groups from northern Syria as well as displaced factions from Damascus, Rural Damascus, Homs and Hama governorates.

• The Levant Front is regarded as the largest faction in the SNA and the only one whose formation precedes Turkey’s military intervention in Syria in 2016. The Levant Front is reported to be in control of Azaz.
• The Hamza Division, al-Mutasim Brigade and the 51st Brigade are deployed in the Euphrates Shield Area between Azaz, Al-Bab and Jarablus.
• In Ras al Ain, the Turkmen factions Sultan Murad Division and Hamza Division are reported to be in control.
• Major towns located between Tall Abyad and Ras al-Ayn are controlled by the Tajammu Ahrar al-Sharqiya faction.
• Afrin is dominated by the Sultan Murad Division.

Although united under the SNA banner, the constituent groups are in practice unaccountable to other actors except Turkey, they compete with each other and are often unpopular with the local population. The UN has reported clashes between armed groups that operate under the SNA umbrella, as well as splitting of the region into areas of influence between different factions.

[Actors, 4.3, 5.1, 5.2; Security 2021, 1.4.2]

At the beginning of October 2019, as Turkey was preparing to launch an offensive against Kurdish-controlled areas in north-eastern Syria, the SNA incorporated the National Liberation Front (NLF) into its ranks. The NLF is also a Turkish-backed alliance of opposition-armed groups, formed and active in the Idlib area in 2018. The group uses the brand of the Free Syrian Army (FSA) - the umbrella armed group formed by the anti-government opposition in 2011. It is made up of moderate but also Islamist factions. The main factions include:

• Feilaq al-Sham: considered the main actor in the NLF and Turkey’s closest rebel partner, founded by the members of the Muslim Brotherhood;
• Ahrar al-Sham: Salafi armed group that controls local communities in southern Idlib and the northern Hama countryside;
• The Free Idlib Army: alliance of formerly Western-supported factions;
• Jaish al-Ahrar: Ahrar al-Sham splinter group;
• Harakat Nour al-Din al-Zinki, an Islamist faction that is based near Aleppo and has repeatedly changed sides between rival insurgent groups.

NLF lost control over territory in Idlib after clashes with HTS and subsequently, following an agreement between the groups, ceded the civil administration and surrounding areas in Idlib to HTS. Following the clashes, some NLF fighters evacuated the Idlib area towards the Turkish-backed rebel-controlled Afrin in Aleppo governorate. Since the agreement, the two groups have fought together against the GoS offensive into the Idlib area.

The union of SNA and NLF brought together more than 40 armed opposition groups which are reported to be under the ‘near-total control of Turkey’s Ministry of Defence and National Intelligence Organisation’. Estimations of the total strength of the combined forces vary between around 35 000 fighters and 80 000 fighters.

[Actors, 4.3, 5.1; Security 2021, 1.4.2, 1.4.5]

There were documented kidnappings, abductions, torture, extortion and assassinations of civilians by armed groups operating under the SNA. Looting, theft and expropriation of Kurdish properties by SNA factions in the aftermath of the capture of Afrin were also reported. Turkish forces and the affiliated SNA were reportedly responsible for indiscriminate attacks on residential areas, summary killings and unlawful attacks that killed and injured civilians, among others. The SNA-branded group Ahrar al-Sharqiya has been most frequently named as the perpetrator of summary killings and human rights abuses during the October 2019 offensive [Actors, 5.2]. In addition, SNA-affiliated groups, including Ahrar al-Sham, Jaysh al-Islam, Harakat Nour al-Din al-Zinki, are reported to conduct child recruitment [Targeting, 12.1].

Hayat Tahrir al-Sham or Organisation for the Liberation of the Levant (HTS) is described as the most important and powerful actor in the Idlib area, the armed opposition’s main stronghold.

HTS was formed in 2017 as a coalition of Islamist Sunni anti-government armed groups. It is comprised of several armed factions, including Jabhat Fatah al-Sham (also known as Jabhat al-Nusrah and previously as the Al-Nusrah Front), Ansar al-Sham and Ajnad al-Sham, among others. Its primary objective is to establish Islamic rule in Syria through overthrowing the Assad government and ousting Iranian militias. HTS’s precursor organisation - Jabhat al-Nusrah, was formed in Syria in 2011 as an Al Qaeda affiliate within the armed opposition to the GoS. The US, UN, EU and Turkey have designated HTS as a terrorist organisation, affiliated with Al Qaeda. HTS’s strength was evaluated to be between 7 000 and 10 000 fighters.

HTS controlled over 90 % of Idlib governorate, alongside adjacent parts of northern Hama and western Aleppo governorates. During 2019, the GoS forces increased their military offensive against the armed opposition groups in the Idlib area. This offensive eroded the military and political control of HTS and increased Turkish presence in Idlib and high-ranking defections from the group have further weakened HTS’ position. Despite these setbacks, HTS has managed to remain the dominant armed group in the area.

HTS has created several civilian bodies in the territory under their control, including a governance body responsible for civilian functions - the Syrian Salvation Government, a court system that applies Sharia law, and an extensive prison system.

It was reported that HTS frequently commit serious human rights abuses, including harassment, assassinations, kidnapping, and torture, as well as unlawful detention of civilians. Civilians have also been extorted and kidnapped for ransom. The group has conducted formal military campaigns, assassinations, hostage takings, and ‘lone wolf’ operations, including suicide bombings. Members of religious minorities have been forced to convert to Islam and adopt Sunni customs. The UN reported the recruitment and use of 187 children by HTS in the period from January to December 2018.

 [Actors, 4.1; Security 2021, 1.4.4]

Apart from HTS, other armed groups operate in the Idlib area. They are predominantly Islamist groups, relate differently to Turkey, and are said to ‘have an ambiguous or symbiotic relationship’ with HTS. These Islamist groups include Hurras al-Din (HAD), an Al Qaeda-linked group that split from HTS in 2018; the Turkistan Islamic Party (TIP), an Uighur-Chinese-dominated jihadist militant faction; and smaller Islamist groups, including Ansar al-Tawhid, a splinter of Jabhat al-Nusrah, the Khattab Al-Shishani Brigade comprised of Chechen fighters, the Katiba al-Tawhid wal-Jihad (KTJ) made up of fighters from central Asia, among others [Actors, 4.2; Security 2021, 1.4.5].

For further information on human rights violations committed by various anti-government armed groups and their relevance as potential exclusion grounds, see 6. Exclusion.